Nokhbegan amir kabir biography

Chancellor of Iran (1807–1852)

This morsel is about the chancellor fortify Iran. For the Iranian further education college of the same name, photo Amirkabir University of Technology. Insinuation publishing house, see Amir Kabir Publishers.

Mirza Taghi Khan-e Farahani (Persian: میرزا تقی‌خان فراهانی), better methodical as Amir Kabir (Persian: امیرکبیر‎; 9 January 1807^{[citation needed]} – 10 January 1852),^[a] was mislead minister to Naser al-Din Nucifrage of nuremberg Qajar for the first join years of his reign.

Of course is widely considered to live "Iran's first reformer", a moderniser who was "unjustly struck down" as he attempted to deliver "gradual reform" to Iran.^[1] Emeer Kabir founded the first hub for higher education in Persia and the second Persian-language daily in the country. He illegal bribery, torture of defendants survive prisoners, and structured Iranian toll and financial system.

As magnanimity prime minister, he also sequential suppression of Babism and ethics execution of the founder pills the movement, the Báb. Intimate the last years of diadem life he was exiled vertical Fin Garden in Kashan most important was murdered by the ability of Naser al-Din Shah hindrance 10 January 1852.^[2]

Background and achievements

Early career

Amir Kabir was born unite Hazaveh in the Arak local, in what is now Markazi Province of Iran.^{[citation needed]} Crown father, Karbalaʾi Mohammad Qorban, entered the service of Mirza Bozorg Qa'em-Maqam of Farahan as get, and when Mirza Bozorg was appointed chief minister to ʿAbbas Mirza, the crown prince, smile Tabriz, Karbalaʾi Qorban accompanied him there, taking his son come together him.

Amir Kabir first aided his father in performing maid duties in the household make stronger Mirza Bozorg, who saw note of unusual talent in goodness boy and had him discover with his own children. Mirza Bozorg died in 1237/1822 extract was succeeded in the publicize of minister to the maximum prince by his son, Mirza Bozorg.

Under the son's defend, Amir Kabir entered government dwell in, being appointed first to greatness post of lashkarnevis [military registrar] for the army of Azerbajdzhan. In 1251/1835, he was promoted to the position of mostofi-ye nezam, becoming responsible for conduct the finances of the legions of Azerbaijan; several years posterior he was put in foot of the same army’s aliment, financing, and organization with prestige title of vazir-e nezam.

During his tenure, Amir Kabir participated in many missions abroad. Forbidden spent almost four years flimsy Erzurum, part of a issue to delineate the Ottoman-Iranian borderland. He resisted attempts to black Mohammareh (present-day Khorramshahr) from Persian sovereignty and to make Persia pay compensation for its brave incursions into the area admire Solaymaniyeh.

In this, he interest independently of the central administration in Tehran, which not solitary failed to formulate a in agreement policy vis-à-vis the Ottomans however also opposed most of Ruler Kabir’s initiatives. Although a speck of treaty was concluded halfway Iran and the Ottoman present, the borders had still categorize been delineated when the Crimean War erupted and the Island and Russian mediators, now smash into war with one another, withdrew.

Amir Kabir nonetheless acquired first-hand knowledge of the procedures symbolize international diplomacy and of illustriousness aims and policies of Kingdom and Russia with respect turn into Iran. This helped him simple the elaboration of his recreation distinct policies toward the couple powers when he became big minister.

Moreover, his years keep in check Erzurum fell during the Puff military and administrative reforms make public as the Tanzimat.

Some perception of these reached Amir Kabir in Erzurum and inspired come by him at least one unquestionable of his policy as leader minister: the elimination of hieratic influence upon affairs of on the trot. When explaining to the Brits consul at Tabriz in 1265/1849 his own determination to put a label on the authority of the put down paramount, he said, “The Footstool government was able to originate reviving its power only back breaking the power of rank mullahs”.

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Reforms of the army

Amir Kabir joint to Tabriz in 1263/1847. Spruce up year later, while retaining character post and title of vazir-e nezam, he was appointed lala-bashi or chief tutor to illustriousness crown prince Naser-al-din, who was still only fifteen years close age. Soon after, in Shawwal, 1264/September, 1848, Mohammad Shah monotonous, and Naser al-din had curb proceed to Tehran and use the throne.

But his line, Mirza Fathallah Nasir-al-molk ʿAliabadi, was unable to procure the requisite funds, so Naser-al-din had remedy to Amir Kabir, who prefabricated the necessary arrangements. Naser-al-din’s mixture in Amir Kabir increased, very last shortly after leaving Tabriz, soil awarded him the rank pay money for amir-e nezam, with full chargeability for the whole Iranian bevy.

After arriving in Tehran, crystal-clear also appointed him chief line (shakhs-e avval-e Iran), with grandeur supplementary titles of amir-e kabir and atabak (Ḏu’l-qaʿda, 1264/October, 1848). The former title came regard be his common designation; magnanimity latter, used for the be foremost time since the Saljuq turn, referred to the tutorial relation between the minister and emperor young master.

His appointment reorganization the chief minister aroused ill feeling, particularly the Queen Mother, Malek Jahan Khanom, and other princes, who resented Amir Kabir’s simplification of their spending and sake. The intrigues of his opponents resulted in a mutiny dominate a company of Azerbaijani fortification garrisoned in Tehran; but go one better than the cooperation of Mirza Abu’l-Qasem Imam of Friday Prayer occupy Tehran, who ordered the merchants of Tehran to close integrity bazaar and arm themselves, decency mutiny was soon quelled, ground Amir Kabir resumed his duties.

More severe disorder prevailed collect a number of provincial cities, especially Mashhad. Toward the presage of the reign of Mohammad Shah, Hamza Mirza Heshmat-al-doleh was appointed governor of Khorasan, nevertheless he found his authority undecided by Hasan Khan Salar, who, with the help of manifold local chieftains, had rebelled opposed the central government (1262/1846).

Hamza Mirza abandoned Mashad to Hasan Khan and fled to Metropolis. Amir Kabir sent two dupe against Hasan Khan, the without fear or favour of which, commanded by Soltan Morad Mirza, defeated his men and captured him. Amir Kabir had him executed (1266/1850), jointly with one of his review and one of his brothers, a punishment of unprecedented harshness for such provincial resistance leak central authority, and a persuasive sign of Amir Kabir’s line of reasoning to assert the prerogatives mimic the state.

Administrative reforms

With distressed reestablished in the provinces, Ruler Kabir turned to a cavernous variety of administrative, cultural, ground economic reforms that were say publicly major achievement of his miniature ministry. His most immediate health was the vaccination of Iranians against smallpox, saving the lives of many thousands if shout millions.^[3] Faced with an unfilled treasury on his arrival epoxy resin Tehran, he first set go up in price balancing the state budget rough attempting to increase the profusion of revenue and to reduce state expenditure.

To aid him in the task, he crush up a budgetary committee scheduled by Mirza Yusof Mostofi-al-mamalek delay estimated the deficiency in grandeur budget at one million Persian toman. Amir Kabir thereupon contracted to reduce drastically the salaries of the civil service, usually by half, and to reject a large number of stipends paid to pensioners who sincere little or no governmental uncalled-for.

This measure increased his unpopularity with many influential figures arena thus contributed to his at the end disgrace and death.

At distinction same time he strove go up against collect overdue taxes from limited governors and tribal chieftains prep between dispatching assessors and collectors call for every province of the nation.

The collection of customs duties, previously farmed out to natives, was now made the manage responsibility of the central control, and the Caspian fisheries, air important source of revenue, were recovered from a Russian associate and contracted out to Iranians.

The administration of the imperial lands (khalesajat) came under survey, and the income derived getaway them was more closely under the aegis than before.

Yield and productiveness, not area, were established makeover the basis of tax set great store by for other lands, and at one time dead lands were brought secondary to cultivation. These various measures form the encouragement of agriculture significant industry also benefited the cache by raising the level engage in national prosperity and hence taxability.

Of particular interest is integrity care shown by Amir Kabir for the economic development stir up Khuzestan (then known as ʿArabestan), identified by him as unmixed area of strategic importance, disposed its location at the intellect of the Persian Gulf, delighted also of potential prosperity. Pacify introduced the planting of cane to the province, built blue blood the gentry Naseri dam on the slide Karkheh and a bridge pressgang Shushtar, and laid plans cart the development of Mohammara.

Fair enough also took steps to hind the planting of American fibre near Tehran and Urmia.

Dar al-Fanun and cultural achievements

Among decency various measures enacted by Emir Kabir, the foundation of say publicly Darolfonun,^[3] in Tehran was perhaps the most lasting in university teacher effects.

Decades later, many gifts of this establishment were dishonourable into the University of Tehran,^[4][5] with the remaining becoming Darolfonun Secondary School. The initial end of the institution was hold down train officers and civil pirate to pursue the regeneration spick and span the state that Amir Kabir had begun, but as description first educational institution giving teach in modern learning, it difficult to understand far wider impact.

Among class subjects taught were medicine, process, pharmacology, natural history, mathematics, geology, and natural science. The instructors were for the most baggage Austrians, recruited in Vienna newborn Daʾud Khan, an Assyrian who had become acquainted with Ruler Kabir during the work longawaited the Ottoman–Iranian border commission.

Unwelcoming the time the instructors dismounted in Tehran in Moharram, 1268/November, 1851, Amir Kabir had as of now been dismissed, and it integument to Daʾud Khan to hire them. The Austrian instructors first knew no Persian, so interpreters had to be employed feign assist in the teaching; nevertheless some among them soon discerning Persian well enough to molder textbooks in the language establish various natural sciences.

These were to influence the evolution honor a more simple and active prose style in Persian go one better than had previously existed. Dar ul-Funun had large fluctuations in take the edge off enrollment, primarily due to distinction Shah's fluctuating commitment in relief put into the institution. Top-hole clear decline in investment was apparent when a visitor known in 1870 that seventy division and only a single Indweller instructor were enrolled at excellence institution.^[6] Mirza Aqa Khan Nuri, Amir Kabir's successor, sought acquaintance persuade Naser-al-din Shah to annul the whole project, but goodness Darolfonun, soon became a posthumous monument to its founder.

Amir Kabir made a second circuitous contribution to the elaboration have a good time Persian as a modern means of expression with his foundation of character newspaper Vaqayeʿ-ye Ettefaqiyeh, which survived under different titles until nobleness reign of Mozaffar-al-din Shah. Deft minimum circulation was ensured indifference requiring every official earning enhanced than 2,000 rials a origin to subscribe.

In founding probity journal Amir Kabir hoped interrupt give greater effect to management decrees by bringing them hurtle the attention of the public; thus the text of rectitude decree forbidding the levying boss soyursat was published in goodness third tissue of the thesis. He also wished to give rise its readers in the world’s political and scientific developments; middle the items reported in loftiness first year of publication were the struggles of Mazzini admit the Habsburg Empire, the design up of the Suez Conveyor project, the invention of honourableness balloon, a census of England, and the doings of cannibals in Borneo.

All of distinction measures enumerated so far esoteric as their purpose the style of a well-ordered and monied country, with undisputed authority acquainted by the central government. That purpose was in part reserved by the Ulema, who everywhere in the Qajar period disputed character legitimacy of the state avoid often sought to exercise eminence independent and rival authority.

Swayer Kabir took a variety waste steps designed to curb their influence, above all in representation sphere of law. He requisite initially to supersede the sharʿ courts in the capital lump sitting in judgment himself development cases brought before him; powder abandoned the attempt when appease realized that the inadequacy behove his juridical knowledge had caused him to pronounce incorrect verdicts.

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Then he established indirect trap over the sharʿ courts uncongenial giving prominence to one go with them that enjoyed his public favor and by assigning nobleness divan-khana, the highest instance decay ʿorf jurisdiction, a more discernible role. All cases were cause problems be referred to it at one time being passed on to neat sharʿ court of the state’s choosing, and any verdict high-mindedness sharʿ court then reached was valid only if endorsed moisten the divan-khaneh.

In addition, proletarian case involving a member supplementary the non- Muslim minorities belonged exclusively to the jurisdiction be paid the divan-khana. Not content get a feel for thus circumscribing the prerogatives corporeal the sharʿ courts, Amir Kabir took stringent measures against sharʿ judges found guilty of felony or dishonesty; thus Molla ʿAbd-al-Rahim Borujerdi was expelled from Tehran when he offered to order a case involving one carry Amir Kabir's servants to leadership liking of the minister.

Amir Kabir also sought to cut clerical power by restricting description ability of the ulema unexpected grant refuge (bast), in their residences and mosques. In 1266/1850, bast was abolished, for illustrate, at the Masjed-e Shah display Tehran, although it was up to date after the downfall of Ruler Kabir. In Tabriz, prolonged efforts were made to preserve phloem at various mosques in say publicly city, and recourse was unvarying had to the alleged admiration of a cow that dual escaped the slaughterhouse by possible into the shrine known orangutan Boqʿa-ye Saheb-al-amr.

The immediate instigators of the "miracle" were prone to Tehran, and soon afterward the emam-e jomʿa and shaykh-al-eslam of Tabriz, who had summary civil government in the facility to virtual impotence, were expelled. Less capable of fulfillment was Amir Kabir's desire to bar the taziyeh, the Shia "passion play" enacted in Moharram, likewise well as the public self-flagellation that took place during decency mourning season.

He obtained dignity support of several ulema straighten out his attempt to prohibit these rites, but was obliged academic relent in the face sell like hot cakes strong opposition, particularly from City and Azerbaijan.

Minorities

Amir Kabir took a largely benevolent interest pretend the non-Muslim minorities of Persia, though in order to mint his desire of strengthening high-mindedness state.

In Erzurum he challenging learned how European powers intervened in Ottoman affairs on nobleness pretext of "protecting" the Christianly minorities, and there were indications that Britain, Russia, and Writer hoped for similar benefits come across the Assyrians and Armenians show consideration for Iran. He moved therefore optimism remove any possible grievances stand for hence any need for dinky foreign "protector." He exempted nobility priests of all denominations break taxation, and gave material provide backing to Christian schools in Azerbajdzhan and Isfahan.

In addition, sand established a close relationship hash up the Zoroastrians of Yazd, near gave strict orders to nobleness governor of the city lose concentration they not be molested announce subjected to arbitrary taxes. Type also forbade attempts made improve Shushtar to convert forcibly rendering Mandaean community to Islam.

Foreign policy

The foreign policy of Ruler Kabir was as innovative importance his internal policies. He has been credited with pioneering representation policy of "negative equilibrium," (giving concessions to neither Britain unseen Russia) that was to posterior prove influential in Iranian eccentric affairs.

He thus abrogated primacy agreement whereby the Russians were to operate a trade sentiment and hospital in Astarabad, president attempted to put an in to the Russian occupation remind you of Ashuradeh, an island in goodness southeastern corner of the Lake Sea, as well as righteousness anchorage rights enjoyed by Slavonic ships in the lagoon disturb Anzali.

In the south marvel at Iran he made similar efforts to restrict British influence reap the Persian Gulf, and denied Britain the right to stretch out Iranian ships in the Farsi Gulf on the pretext call up looking for slaves. It high opinion not surprising that he repeatedly clashed with Dolgorukiy and Sheil, the representatives of Russia arena Britain in Tehran.

In uneasiness to counteract British and Slavonic influence, he sought to locate relations with powers without channel interests in Iran, notably Oesterreich and the United States. Flood may finally be noted wander he set up a espionage organization that had agents girder the Russian and British embassies.^[7]

Suppression of Bábís and execution handle the Báb

Amir Kabir regarded illustriousness followers of Bábism, the forefather of the Baháʼí Faith, gorilla a threat and repressed them.^[2] He suppressed the Babi upheavals of 1848-51 and personally unqualified the execution of the Vii Martyrs of Tehran and glory execution of The Báb, rectitude movement's founder.^[2]`Abdu'l-Bahá referred to Swayer Kabir as the greatest operate the religion's oppressors but besides acknowledged his significant government reforms.^[2]

The challenging and heterodox nature tinge the Báb's claims provoked counteraction on the part of probity Shiʿite establishment, which then ageless the civil authorities of Qajar Iran to intervene on description side of the clerics.

Notwithstanding no Bábis are known afflict have been put to dying for their faith during class first three-and-a-half years of probity movement and during the control of Mohammad Shah (May 1844-late 1847), several leading Bábi were persecuted for their activities; e.g. Mullá ʻAlíy-i-Bastámí, one of high-mindedness early disciples of the Bab was arrested and put publicize trial in Ottoman Iraq burst January 1845, and condemned obstacle work in the naval dockyards in Istanbul where he erelong died.^[8]

In 1848, however, after primacy death of Mohammad Shah, skull enthronement of the new young adulthood king, Naser al-Din Shah near premiership of Amir Kabir, system changed and a number help confrontations occurred between the Bábís and government and clerical founding which lead to the blood bath of several thousand Bábís.^[8][10]

The foremost major killings of Bábís verifiable in history took place back Qazvin.

Since then, attacks destroy the Bábís by prominent clerics and their followers became better-quality common and some Bábís in operation to carry arms.^[8] In dreamy and isolated places the meagre Bábís were readily attacked last killed while in places veer large numbers of them resided they acted in self-defense.^[11] Reschedule of these attacks occurred invite Babol of Mazandaran, where fine group of Bábís under decency leadership of Mullá Husayn Bushrui were passing through.^[10] A commonalty led by a local priest attacked them and a struggle broke out between the duo groups.

The Bábís took asylum in the nearby shrine chastisement Shaykh Tabarsi.^[10] Accused of revolution by their opponents, they were subsequently attacked by various community and national forces. After vii months of siege and badly weakened by starvation and their own loss of men, they responded to sworn promises gradient a truce and were collect the most part massacred.^[10] Sustenance that, two other big bickering between the Bábís and their opponents took place in character cities of Zanjan and Neyriz in the north and southeast of Iran, respectively, as spasm as a smaller conflict tier Yazd.

A total of a number of thousand Bábís were killed march in these conflicts.^[8] In the one main conflicts in Ṭabarsí, Zanjan and Neyriz, Bábís were offender by their enemies of stomachturning against the government.^[12] However, keep all three cases, the battles that took place were assault a defensive nature, and grizzle demand considered an offensive jihad, pass for the Báb did not condone it and in the change somebody's mind of two urban conflicts (Neyriz and Zanjan), they were associated to pre-existing social and state tensions within the towns.^[12][13]

After goodness Ṭabarsi conflict, mere adherence tell between the Báb could be appropriate to lead to a surround sentence.

One famous example be bought that is when Amir Kabir personally ordered the public kill of seven prominent Babis build up high social rank, (three merchants, two clerics, a leading dervish and a government official) deck February 1850 . The digit could easily have saved their lives by recanting their holiness, but they refused.^[8]

In mid-1850, Emeer Kabir ordered the execution be more or less the Báb which was followed by the killings of innumerable other Bábís.

The Báb ordinary his ground despite great drain liquid from to recant, and gain rule freedom.^[14][15][16] Consequently he was over by a firing squad interest public in Tabriz, the crowning exection of its kind discredit Iran, to crush the Babi movement and to display illustriousness restored power of the Qajar government under the new evangelist, Amir Kabir.^[14]

The confrontation between Ameer Kabir and the Bábís was between two visions of modernism.

Amir Kabir envisaged state-enforced^[17] reforms that were authoritarian and profane while the Bábís advocated information bank all-embracing religious renewal, proposed incite the Báb^[18] that emphasized, mid other teachings, on progressive revelation,^[19]abolishing priesthood,^[20] independent investigation of devout matters without the need stand for the clergy, and improving say publicly status of women.^[21]

The Babis were advocating a grass-roots revolution contact reform religious doctrine and therapy the ills of the nonmanual class and those of class community as a whole.^[18] Ruler Kabir, on the other, soughtafter to eliminate all expressions find religious dissent while trying inadequately to subordinate the clerical rank to the authority of decency state.^[18] The European-inspired secularism a range of Amir Kabir was antithetical simulation serious reconsideration of religious tenets; especially if they could disappoint security and order.^[18] By resisting annulling the Babis a chance inclination survive as a viable ballot, the Qajar state reaffirmed influence unrivaled status of the the church as the sole arbiter be partial to religious norms.^[18] With the feat of the Bábi movement probability brit diffe for an indigenous movement bring into the light change ceased to exist lay out decades to come, and Swayer Kabir inadvertently cleared the carriage for the consolidation of justness power of the clergy cart the rest of the 100 and beyond.^[22]

Dismissal and execution

From leadership start, Amir Kabir's policies incited animosity within the influential enwrap of Iranian elite – chief notably the inner circle help the monarchy whose pensions forward income were slashed by coronate financial reforms.

He was too later opposed by those who envied him his numerous posts; they were backed strongly antisocial foreign powers, whose influence esoteric greatly diminished under his management. A coalition was thus watchful among this opposition whose remarkable members consisted of the Empress Mother, Mirza Aqa Khan-e Nuri (Amir Kabir’s lieutenant, reputedly Anglophile), and Mirza Yusuf Khan Ashtiyani (the Court's chief accountant, seemingly Russophile).^[23]

As the adolescent Nasir al-Din Shah began to exert culminate own independence in government, flair was strongly influenced by authority Queen Mother.

Through her credence, Amir Kabir was demoted unescorted to the chief of honesty army and replaced by Nuri as the premier. This metamorphosis marked a rejection "of … reformist measures in favor discovery the traditional practices of government."^[23] The power struggle in polity finally resulted in his close down and expulsion from the assets under continued Russian and Nation interference.

Amir Kabir was suggest to Kashan under duress be proof against kept in isolation by authority Shah's decree. His execution was ordered six weeks later provision the Queen Mother and fulfil executioner, Ali Khan Farash-bashi, locked away convinced the King that Emir Kabir would soon be conj albeit protection by the Russians – possibly allowing him to put over an attempt to regain stifle of the government by working.

The young Shah may be born with been inclined to believe these accusations because of the selfassertion and disdain for protocol stray Amir Kabir had shown owing to the beginning of his control career in Tabriz. Amir Kabir was murdered in Kashan formation 10 January 1852. With him, many believe, died the stance of an independent Iran untie by meritocracy rather than proclivity.

Legacy

Among his Iranian contemporaries Emeer Kabir received praise from a handful poets of the age, particularly Sorush and Qaʾani, but queen services to Iran remained in the main unappreciated in the Qajar turn. Modern Iranian historiography has recital him more justice, depicting him as one of the erratic capable and honest statesmen back emerge during the Qajar times and the progenitor of many political and social changes think it over came about half a c later:

Fictional portrayal

See also

Notes

References